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Table of Contents:
Taxonomy Information
  1. Species:
    1. Guanarito virus (Website 7):
      1. Common Name: Guanarito virus
      2. GenBank Taxonomy No.: 45219
      3. Description: Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever (VHF) is a severe disease characterized by fever, malaise, sore throat, followed by abdominal pain, diarrhea, and a variety of hemorrhagic manifestations and convulsions. The arenavirus Guanarito is the causal agent and the virus natural reservoir is the rodent Zygodontomys brevicauda (cane mouse). The disease affects agricultural male workers, between 14-54 years of age, mainly from Guanarito municipality of Portuguesa state and adjacent regions of Barinas State. Since the VHF emergency in 1989 up to 1997, 220 cases have been reported with a fatality rate of 33%. Epidemiological information suggests that VHF has a cyclic behavior, with epidemic periods of high incidence every 4-5 years. During the interepidemic periods few VHF cases are reported(Salas et al., 1998).
Lifecycle Information
  1. Guanarito Virus Information
    1. Stage Information:
      1. Virion:
        • Size: Morphologically, arenavirus virions consist of enveloped particles that vary in diameter from approximately 60 to more than 300 nm, with a mean particle size of 92 nm as determined by electron microscopy.
        • Shape: The virions are approximately spherical, enveloped particles that range in diameter from 50 to 300 nm.. The surface of the virion is smooth with T-shaped spikes, composed of viral glycoproteins, extending 7-10 nm from the envelope.
Genome Summary
  1. Genome of Guanarito virus
    1. Description: The arenavirus genome consists of two single-stranded RNA molecules, designated L and S, that contain essentially nonoverlapping sequence information. There are minor differences in the lengths of the genomic RNA segments for the individual viruses (L approximately 7,200 bases and S approximately 3,400 bases), but the general organization of the viral genomes, based on current sequence information, is well preserved across the virus family(Southern, 1996). The genomic RNA consists of two segments, S (3.4 k) and L (7.2 kb), both of which are arranged in an ambisense orientation. The S segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein (NP) in negative, antimessage sense at the 3'-end and the viral glycoprotein precursor, GP-C in message sense at the 5'-end. The L RNA segment contains the L protein (polymerase) gene at the 3'-end in negative polarity and the zinc-binding (Z) protein at the 5'-end in message polarity. Posttranslational modification of the cell-associated GP-C precursor yields the structural glycoproteins GP-1 (44 kd) and GP-2 (35 kd), which are assembled into a tetrameric virion spike. GP-1 contains determinants that interact with viral receptors and is recognized by neutralizing antibody. GP-2 contains sites that promote acid-dependent membrane fusion necessary for viral entry. The nucleocapsid protein is an internal RNA-binding protein that complexes with genomic RNA(Peters et al., 1996).
    2. S Segment(Website 6, Website 5)
      1. GenBank Accession Number: AY129247
      2. Size: 3343 and 3342 bp(Website 6, Website 5).
      3. Gene Count: 2 genes in the S segment(Peters et al., 1996).
      4. Description: The genomic RNA consists of two segments, S (3.4 k) and L (7.2 kb), both of which are arranged in an ambisense orientation. The S segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein (NP) in negative, antimessage sense at the 3'-end and the viral glycoprotein precursor, GP-C in message sense at the 5'-end(Peters et al., 1996).
    3. L Segment
      1. Size: L segment. The genomic RNA consists of two segments, S (3.4 k) and L (7.2 kb), both of which are arranged in an ambisense orientation(Peters et al., 1996).
      2. Gene Count: 2 genes in the L segment(Peters et al., 1996).
      3. Description: The L RNA segment contains the L protein (polymerase) gene at the 3'-end in negative polarity and the zinc-binding (Z) protein at the 5'-end in message polarity(Peters et al., 1996).
Biosafety Information
  1. General biosafety information
    1. Level: Like Lassa virus, Junin, Machupo, Guanarito, and Sabia viruses are infectious by aerosol and the human and rodent specimens should be processed with appropriate precautions in BSL 4 laboratories(Buchmeier et al., 2001).
    2. Precautions: Because of the hazards inherent in working with Class IV viruses, specific diagnosis should ideally be made in laboratories with special containment facilities(Shepherd, 1988). Appropriate precautions should be observed in collection, handling, shipping, and processing of diagnostic samples. Both the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, Atlanta, Georgia.) and the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland.) have diagnostic laboratories operating at the maximum Biosafety Level (BL-4). Viral isolation should not be attempted without BL-4 containment(Website 4).
Culturing Information
  1. Vero Cell Culturing :
    1. Description: The best method to isolate Marburg, Ebola, and pathogenic arenaviruses is inoculation of Vero cells, then immunofluorescence or other immunologically-specific testing of inoculated cells for specific viruses at intervals(Jahrling, 1989). The specific etiologic diagnosis of arenavirus infections can be made by isolating the virus from the blood, serum, throat swabs, urine, and other specimens in a variety of mammalian cell monolayers(Vainrub and Salas, 1994). The Guanarito virus, the etiologic agent of the VHF, was isolated in 1990 in Vero cells, and after 7 to 10 days, spot slides of the culture were examined for viral antigen by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and by plaque reduction neutralization tests, with polyclonal hyperimmune mouse ascitic fluid made against Guanarito virus(Vainrub and Salas, 1994).
    2. Medium: Clinical specimens and clarified tissue homogenates (usually 10% wt/vol) are diluted in a suitable maintenance medium, such as Eagle's minimal essential medium with Earle's salts and 2% heat-inactivated calf serum(Jahrling, 1989).
    3. Optimal Temperature: 37 C(Weaver et al., 2000).
    4. Note: Inoculation of cell culture (Vero, BHK-21) is safer and more easily performed in BSL-4 conditions(Peters et al., 1996).
Epidemiology Information:
  1. Outbreak Locations:
    1. The currently recognized area of VHF endemicity occupies approximately 9,000 square km in the southern and southwestern portions of Portuguesa State and adjacent regions in Barinas State in the central plains (llanos) of Venezuela(de Manzione et al., 1998).
  2. Transmission Information:
    1. From: Zygodontomys brevicauda(Fulhorst et al., 1999). , To: Human(Fulhorst et al., 1999). , With Destination:Human(Fulhorst et al., 1999). (Fulhorst et al., 1999)
      Mechanism: Chronic infections in specific rodents (usually 1 or 2 closely related species) appear to be crucial to the long-term persistence of arenaviruses in nature. To date, virtually all isolates of GTO virus from wild rodents have been recovered from Z. brevicauda, suggesting that this rodent species is the principal host of GTO virus. The results of the present study indicate that GTO virus can establish a chronic (lifelong) viremic infection in Z. brevicauda and that chronically infected animals persistently shed infectious virus in their urine and OP secretions. Based on these experimental results and the frequency that GTO virus has been recovered from captured wild cane mice, it is concluded that Z. brevicauda is the natural reservoir of GTO virus(Fulhorst et al., 1999). Presumably, human infection occurs outdoors. Thus one might expect persons having frequent contact with rodent-infested grassland habitats to be at higher risk of contacting VHF(de Manzione et al., 1998).
    2. From: Human(de Manzione et al., 1998). , To: Human(de Manzione et al., 1998). , With Destination:Human(de Manzione et al., 1998). (de Manzione et al., 1998)
      Mechanism: From the 165 VHF patients included in this study, there was one person who might have been a secondary or contact case. This individual was a 30-year-old housewife who developed a fatal illness, compatible clinically and histopathologically with VHF, 19 days after her husband was hospitalized with a nonfatal confirmed Guanarito infection(de Manzione et al., 1998).
  3. Environmental Reservoir:
    1. Rodent(Fulhorst et al., 1999, Salazar-Bravo et al., 2002):
      1. Description: The results of recent studies on the epidemiology of VHF indicate that the cane mouse, Zygodontomys brevicauda, is a natural host of Guanarito (GTO) virus (Fulhorst et al., 1999). To date, virtually all isolates of GTO virus from wild rodents have been recovered from Z. brevicauda, suggesting that this rodent species is the principal host of GTO virus(Fulhorst et al., 1999). Early reports on the etiology and characterization of Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever implicated two rodents as reservoirs. As early as 1996, the possibility that two different arenaviruses were circulating in these two species of wild rodents in the same general area in Venezuela had been advanced. Fulhorst et al. (1997) described a second arenavirus from S. alstoni and experimental work by Fulhorst and colleagues (1999) clearly identified Z. brevicauda as the reservoir species of Guanarito, the etiological agent of VHF(Salazar-Bravo et al., 2002).
      2. Survival: The results of previous laboratory studies on arenavirus infections in their principal rodent hosts suggest that chronic infection can negatively affect the fitness of individual rodents, that is, their ability to pass their genes on to the next generation. Conceptually, any negative effect on host fitness could affect the ability of a rodent species to serve as an arenavirus reservoir. In the present study, no lethality or illness was associated with chronic GTO infection, suggesting that the longevity of chronically infected cane mice likely is comparable to that of uninfected counterparts. Whether chronic infection can affect other parameters of host fitness (e.g., growth rate, fecundity) remains to be determined(Fulhorst et al., 1999).
    2. Rodent(Weaver et al., 2000):
      1. Description: Epidemiologic field investigations in the VHF-endemic region of western Venezuela indicate that two grassland rodent species, the cane mouse Zygodontomys brevicauda and the cotton rat Sigmodon alstoni are natural hosts of GTO virus(Weaver et al., 2000). GTO virus was isolated only from S. alstoni and Z. brevicauda, and a single isolate was obtained from the pygmy rice rat, Oligoryzomys fulvescens(Weaver et al., 2000). Overall, the prevalence of arenavirus infection was highest in S. alstoni, followed by Z. brevicauda. In S. alstoni, infection was detected at many trapping sites and the prevalence of infection ranged from 25 to 40%(Weaver et al., 2000).
  4. Intentional Releases:
    1. Intentional Release Information:
      1. Emergency Contact: If clinicians feel that VHF is a likely diagnosis, they should take two immediate steps: 1) isolate the patient, and 2) notify local and state health departments and CDC(MMWR, 1988). Report incidents to state health departments and the CDC (telephone {404} 639-1511; from 4:30 p.m. to 8 a.m., telephone {404} 639-2888). Information on investigating and managing patients with suspected viral hemorrhagic fever, collecting and shipping diagnostic specimens, and instituting control measures is available on request from the following persons at Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia; for all telephone numbers, dial 404-639 + extension: Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) Officer, Special Pathogens Branch, Division of Viral Diseases, Center for Infectious Diseases (ext. 1344); Chief, Special Pathogens Branch, Division of Viral Diseases, Center for Infectious Diseases: Joseph B. McCormick, M.D. (ext. 3308); Senior Medical Officer, Special Pathogens Branch, Division of Viral Diseases, Center for Infectious Diseases: Susan P. Fisher-Hoch, M.D. (ext. 3308); Director, Division of Viral Diseases, Center for Infectious Diseases (ext. 3574). After regular office hours and on weekends, the persons named above may be contacted through the CDC duty officer (ext. 2888)(MMWR, 1988).
      2. Delivery Mechanism: The VHF agents are all highly infectious via the aerosol route, and most are quite stable as respirable aerosols. This means that they satisfy at least one criterion for being weaponized, and some clearly have the potential to be biological warfare threats. Most of these agents replicate in cell culture to concentrations sufficiently high to produce a small terrorist weapon, one suitable for introducing lethal doses of virus into the air intake of an airplane or office building. Some replicate to even higher concentrations, with obvious potential ramifications. Since the VHF agents cause serious diseases with high morbidity and mortality, their existence as endemic disease threats and as potential biological warfare weapons suggests a formidable potential impact on unit readiness. Further, returning troops may well be carrying exotic viral diseases to which the civilian population is not immune, a major public health concern(Website 4).
      3. Containment: Patients with VHF syndrome generally have significant quantities of virus in their blood, and perhaps in other secretions as well (with the exceptions of dengue and classic hantaviral disease). Well-documented secondary infections among contacts and medical personnel not parenterally exposed have occurred. Thus, caution should be exercised in evaluating and treating patients with suspected VHF syndrome. Over-reaction on the part of medical personnel is inappropriate and detrimental to both patient and staff, but it is prudent to provide isolation measures as rigorous as feasible. At a minimum, these should include the following: stringent barrier nursing; mask, gown, glove, and needle precautions; hazard-labeling of specimens submitted to the clinical laboratory; restricted access to the patient; and autoclaving or liberal disinfection of contaminated materials, using hypochlorite or phenolic disinfectants. For more intensive care, however, increased precautions are advisable. Members of the patient care team should be limited to a small number of selected, trained individuals, and special care should be directed toward eliminating all parenteral exposures. Use of endoscopy, respirators, arterial catheters, routine blood sampling, and extensive laboratory analysis increase opportunities for aerosol dissemination of infectious blood and body fluids. For medical personnel, the wearing of flexible plastic hoods equipped with battery-powered blowers provides excellent protection of the mucous membranes and airways(Website 4).
Diagnostic Tests Information
  1. Organism Detection Test:
    1. Electron Microscopy :
      1. Description: When the identity of a VHF agent is totally unknown, isolation in cell culture and direct visualization by electron microscopy, followed by immunological identification by immunohistochemical techniques is often successful(Website 4).
    2. Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test :
      1. Description: The Guanarito virus, the etiologic agent of the VHF, was isolated in 1990 in Vero cells, and after 7 to 10 days, spot slides of the culture were examined for viral antigen by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and by plaque reduction neutralization tests, with polyclonal hyperimmune mouse ascitic fluid made against Guanarito virus(Vainrub and Salas, 1994).
  2. Immunoassay Test:
    1. Antigen capture ELISA :
      1. Description: Antigen capture ELISA allowed detection of viral antigen in blood, serum, or tissue homogenates. These tests could be used in acute diagnosis of patients suspected of Junin, Machupo, Sabia, and Guanarito and are often the first available diagnostic result in rapidly fatal cases when patients died before antibody appearance(Peters et al., 1996).
    2. ELISA with IgG linked with Horseradish Peroxidase :
      1. Description: Conditions for ELISA by using IgG linked with horseradish peroxidase have been developed for the detection of 6 arenaviruses (Machupo, Junin, Tacaribe, Amapari, LCM and Tamiami). This method allows the detection of arenavirus antigens in various materials; organs and blood in affected animals and infected cell culture fluids. It shows higher sensitivity and allows an earlier detection of virus-specific antigens as compared with the CF test(Ivanov et al., 1981). Contrary to the early appearance of antibodies in Lassa fever, in Junin, Machupo. and Guanarito infections, IgM and IgG antibodies appear 12 to 30 days after, and this correlates with clinical improvement(Vainrub and Salas, 1994).
    3. Plaque Reduction Neutralization :
      1. Description: The Guanarito virus, the etiologic agent of the VHF, was isolated in 1990 in Vero cells, and after 7 to 10 days, spot slides of the culture were examined for viral antigen by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and by plaque reduction neutralization tests, with polyclonal hyperimmune mouse ascitic fluid made against Guanarito virus(Vainrub and Salas, 1994). Plaque reduction neutralizing antibody titers against Machupo, Junin, and Guanarito viruses persist for a long time(Vainrub and Salas, 1994).
Infected Hosts Information
  1. Human
    1. Taxonomy Information:
      1. Species:
        1. Homo sapiens (Website 3):
          • Common Name: Homo sapiens
          • GenBank Taxonomy No.: 9606
          • Description: Human infection with arenaviruses is incidental to the natural cycle of the viruses and occurs when an individual comes into contact with the excretions or materials contaminated with the excretions of an infected rodent, such as ingestion of contaminated food, or by direct contact of abraded or broken skin with rodent excrement. Infection can also occur by inhalation of tiny particles soiled with rodent urine or saliva (aerosol transmission). The types of incidental contact depend on the habits of both humans and rodents. For example, where the infected rodent species prefers a field habitat, human infection is associated with agricultural work. In areas where the habitat of the rodent species includes human homes or other buildings, infection occurs in domestic settings(Website 2).
    2. Infection Process:
      1. Infectious Dose: 1-10 organisms(Franz et al., 1997),
      2. Description: Human infection with arenaviruses is incidental to the natural cycle of the viruses and occurs when an individual comes into contact with the excretions or materials contaminated with the excretions of an infected rodent, such as ingestion of contaminated food, or by direct contact of abraded or broken skin with rodent excrement. Infection can also occur by inhalation of tiny particles soiled with rodent urine or saliva (aerosol transmission). The types of incidental contact depend on the habits of both humans and rodents. For example, where the infected rodent species prefers a field habitat, human infection is associated with agricultural work. In areas where the habitat of rodent species includes human homes or other buildings, infection occurs in domestic settings(Website 2),
    3. Disease Information:
      1. Venezuelan Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF) :
        1. Incubation: 6 to 14 days(Vainrub and Salas, 1994),
        2. Prognosis:
            Twenty-two (33.3%) of the 66 patients with confirmed VHF died; the fatality rate in the 99 probable cases was also 33.3% (33/99). The mean time from initial hospitalization until death among the 22 confirmed VHF fatalities was 4.6 days. Among the 44 patients with confirmed VHF who survived, the mean duration of hospitalization was 10.6 days(de Manzione et al., 1998), For patients entering the hospital with active convulsions or a history of recent convulsions, the prognosis was poor. Overall, 22 (15.7%) of 140 patients with probable or confirmed VHF whose medical records were complete had a history of convulsions just before or at the time of hospital admission. Sixteen of these 22 patients (72.7%) ultimately died, compared with an overall VHF fatality rate of 33.3%(de Manzione et al., 1998),
        3. Symptom Information :
        4. Treatment Information:
          • Supportive therapy (Peters et al., 1996): Supportive therapy is important in the management of patients with arenal viral hemorrhagic fevers. Avoidance of travel and general trauma, gentle sedation and pain relief with conservative doses of opiates, the usual precautions for patients with bleeding diatheses (e.g., avoidance of intramuscular injections or acetylsalicylic acid), and careful maintenance of hydration are indicated. Bleeding should be managed by platelet transfusions and factor replacement, as indicated by clinical judgment and laboratory studies(Peters et al., 1996).
            • Complication: Management of shock is difficult. Modest increases in hematocrit indicate a generalized vascular permeability problem, but not of the magnitude seen in diseases such as hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Nevertheless, vigorous infusion of crystalloid carries a high risk of pulmonary edema. Cautious administrations of fluids and early use of pressors is indicated. Because of the implications of the low cardiac output seen in the Pichinde guinea pig model of arenaviral hemorrhagic fever and clinical experience with human disease, careful monitoring is important and Swan-Ganz catheterization is desirable(Peters et al., 1996).
    4. Prevention:
      1. Barrier nursing(MMWR, 1988)
        • Description: Prevention of arenavirus disease consists of interdicting transmission from rodents to humans, from humans to humans, and from infected specimens to laboratory personnel(Vainrub and Salas, 1994), Strict barrier-nursing techniques should be enforced: all persons entering the patient's room should wear disposable gloves, gowns, masks, and shoe covers. Protective eye wear should be worn by persons dealing with disoriented or uncooperative patients or performing procedures that might involve the patient's vomiting or bleeding (for example, inserting a nasogastric tube or an intravenous or arterial line). Protective clothing should be donned and removed in the anteroom. Only essential medical and nursing personnel should enter the patient's room and anteroom. Isolation signs listing necessary precautions should be posted outside the anteroom(MMWR, 1988),
      1. Rodent control(Vainrub and Salas, 1994)
        • Description: Prevention of arenavirus disease consists of interdicting transmission from rodents to humans, from humans to humans, and from infected specimens to laboratory personnel. Strategies for avoiding contact between rodents and humans have been effective in BHF. In VHF, the evidence suggests that the transmission occurs around houses and fields as in BHF(Vainrub and Salas, 1994),
    5. Model System:
      1. Guinea pig(Hall et al., 1996)
        1. Model Host: .
          Guinea pig, strain 13 and Hartley strain(Hall et al., 1996),
        2. Model Pathogens: (Hall et al., 1996).
        3. Description: Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever (VHF), a newly described disease caused by an arenavirus (Guanarito), has resulted in multiple human deaths in Venezuela. To develop an animal model of this disease, strain 13 and Hartley strain guinea pigs were inoculated subcutaneously with Guananto strain 95551 of arenavirus in a pilot study to determine susceptibility of the species to the virus. The guinea pig appears to be a valid animal model of the human disease(Hall et al., 1996),
      1. Mouse(Tesh et al., 1994)
        1. Model Host: .
          Mouse, suckling mouse(Tesh et al., 1994),
        2. Model Pathogens: (Tesh et al., 1994).
        3. Description: Guanarito virus causes mortality in suckling mice and adult guinea pigs, but not in adult mice(Tesh et al., 1994),
      1. Rhesus monkey(Tesh et al., 1994)
        1. Model Host: .
          Rhesus monkey(Tesh et al., 1994),
        2. Model Pathogens: (Tesh et al., 1994).
        3. Description: Inoculated rhesus monkeys developed viremia and became ill; however, they subsequently recovered and responded with production of antibody(Tesh et al., 1994),
  2. Rodent
    1. Taxonomy Information:
      1. Species:
        1. Zygodontomys brevicauda (Fulhorst et al., 1999, Salas et al., 1998):
          • Common Name: Zygodontomys brevicauda
          • Description: The results of recent studies on the epidemiology of VHF indicate that the cane mouse, Zygodontomys brevicauda, is a natural host of Guanarito (GTO) virus(Fulhorst et al., 1999). To date, virtually all isolates of GTO virus from wild rodents have been recovered from Z. brevicauda, suggesting that this rodent species is the principal host of GTO virus(Fulhorst et al., 1999). Early reports on the etiology and characterization of Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever implicated two rodents as reservoirs. As early as 1996, the possibility that two different arenaviruses were circulating in these two species of wild rodents in the same general area in Venezuela had been advanced. Fulhorst et al. (1997) described a second arenavirus from S. alstoni and experimental work by Fulhorst and colleagues (1999) clearly identified Z. brevicauda as the reservoir species of Guanarito, the etiological agent of VHF(Salazar-Bravo et al., 2002).
        2. Sigmodon alstoni (Website 1):
          • Common Name: Sigmodon alstoni
          • GenBank Taxonomy No.: 134742
          • Description: Epidemiologic field investigations in the VHF-endemic region of western Venezuela indicate that two grassland rodent species, the cane mouse Zygodontomys brevicauda and the cotton rat Sigmodon alstoni are natural hosts of GTO virus(Weaver et al., 2000). GTO virus was isolated only from S. alstoni and Z. brevicauda, and a single isolate was obtained from the pygmy rice rat, Oligoryzomys fulvescens(Weaver et al., 2000). Overall, the prevalence of arenavirus infection was highest in S. alstoni, followed by Z. brevicauda. In S. alstoni, infection was detected at many trapping sites and the prevalence of infection ranged from 25 to 40%(Weaver et al., 2000).
Phinet: Pathogen-Host Interaction Network
Not available for this pathogen.
Lab Animal Pathobiology & Management

NA
References:
Buchmeier et al., 2001: Buchmeier MJ, Bowen MD, Peters CJ. Arenaviridae: The viruses and their replication. 1635-1668. In: . Field's Virology Fourth Edition Volume 2. 2001. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia Pa.
Franz et al., 1997: Franz DR, Jahrling PB, Friedlander AM, McClain DJ, Hoover DL, Bryne WR, Pavlin JA, Christopher GW, Eitzen EM Jr. Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. JAMA. 1997; 278(5); 399-411. [PubMed: 9244332].
Fulhorst et al., 1999: Fulhorst CF, Ksiazek TG, Peters CJ, Tesh, RB. Experimental infection of the cane mouse Zygodontomys brevicauda (family Muridae) with guanarito virus (Arenaviridae), the etiologic agent of Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever. J Infect Dis. 1999; 180(4); 966-969. [PubMed: 10479119].
Hall et al., 1996: Hall WC, Geisbert TW, Huggins JW, Jahrling. Experimental infection of guinea pigs with Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever virus (Guanarito): a model of human disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996; 55(1); 81-8. [PubMed: 8702027].
Ivanov et al., 1981: Ivanov AP, Bashkirtsev VN, Tkachenko EA. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of arenaviruses. Arch Virol. 1981; 67(1); 71-74. [PubMed: 7016080].
Jahrling, 1989: Jahrling PB. Arenaviruses and filoviruses. 857-891. In: . 6th Edition. Diagnostic procedures for viral, rickettsial, and chlamydial infections. 1989. American Public Health Association, Inc., Washington DC.
MMWR, 1988: Center for Disease Control and Prevention . Management of Patients with Suspected Viral Hemorrhagic Fever. Morb Mortal Weekly Report. 1988; 37(Supplemental 3); 1-16. [PubMed: 3126390].
Peters et al., 1996: Peters CJ, Buchmeier M, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG. Arenaviruses. 1521-1551. In: . Field's Virology Third Edition Volume 1. 1996. , .
Salas et al., 1998: Salas RA, de Manzione N, Tesh R. Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever: eight years of observation. Acta Cient Venez. 1998; 49(Supplement 1); 46-51. [PubMed: 10030054].
Salazar-Bravo et al., 2002: Salazar-Bravo J, Ruedas LA, Yates TL. Mammalian Reservoirs of Arenaviruses. 25-63. In: . Arenaviruses I. The epidemiology, molecular and cell biology of Arenaviruses. 2002. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.
Shepherd, 1988: Shepherd AJ. Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Laboratory diagnosis. 241-250. In: . Handbook of viral and rickettsial hemorrhagic fevers. 1988. CRC Press Inc, Boca Raton, Florida.
Southern, 1996: Southern PJ. Arenaviridae: The viruses and their replication. 1505-1519. In: . Field's Virology Third Edition Volume 1. 1996. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia PA.
Tesh et al., 1994: Tesh RB, Jahrling PB, Salas R, Shope. Description of Guanarito virus (Arenaviridae: Arenavirus), the etiologic agent of Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994; 50(4); 452-459. [PubMed: 8166352].
Vainrub and Salas, 1994: Vainrub B, Salas R. Latin American hemorrhagic fever. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 1994; 8(1); 47-59. [PubMed: 8021448].
Weaver et al., 2000: Weaver SC, Salas RA, de Manzione N, Fulhorst CF, Duno G, Utrera A, Mills JN, Ksiazek TG, Tovar D, Tesh RB. Guanarito virus (Arenaviridae) isolates from endemic and outlying localities in Venezuela: sequence comparisons among and within strains isolated from Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever patients and rodents. Virology. 2000; 266(1); 189-195. [PubMed: 10612673].
Website 1: Sigmodon alstoni
Website 2: Arenaviruses
Website 3: Homo sapiens
Website 4: Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers
Website 5: Guanarito virus strain INH-95551 segment S, complete sequence
Website 6: Guanarito virus strain INH-95551 segment S, complete sequence
de Manzione et al., 1998: de Manzione N, Salas RA, Paredes N, Godoy O, Rojas L, Araoz F, Fulhorst CF, Ksiazek TG, Mills JN, Ellis BA, Peters CJ, Tesh RB. Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever: clinical and epidemiological studies of 165 cases. Clin Infect Dis. 1998; 26(2); 308-313. [PubMed: 9502447].
 
Data Provenance and Curators:
PathInfo: Rebecca Wattam
HazARD: (for the section of Lab Animal Pathobiology & Management)
PHIDIAS: Yongqun "Oliver" He

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